Chapter 29: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

The discovery of the first transistor in 1948 by a team of physicists at the Bell Telephone Laboratories sparked an interest in solid-state research that spread rapidly. The transistor, which began as a simple laboratory oddity, was rapidly developed into a semiconductor device of major importance. The transistor demonstrated for the first time in history that amplification in solids was possible. Before the transistor, amplification was achieved only with electron tubes. Transistors now perform numerous electronic tasks with new and improved transistor designs being continually put on the market. In many cases, transistors are more desirable than tubes because they are small, rugged, require no filament power, and operate at low voltages with comparatively high efficiency. The development of a family of transistors has even made possible the miniaturization of electronic circuits. Figure 1 shows a sample of the many different types of transistors you may encounter when working with electronic equipment.

Transistors have infiltrated virtually every area of science and industry, from the family car to satellites. Even the military depends heavily on transistors. The ever increasing uses for transistors have created an urgent need for sound and basic information regarding their operation.

From your study of the PN-junction diode in the preceding chapter, you now have the basic knowledge to grasp the principles of transistor operation. In this chapter you will first become acquainted with the basic types of transistors, their construction, and their theory of operation. You will also find out just how and why transistors amplify. Once this basic information is understood, transistor terminology, capabilities, limitations, and identification will be discussed. Last, we will talk about transistor maintenance, integrated circuits, circuit boards, and modular circuitry.

The first solid-state device discussed was the two-element semiconductor diode. The next device on our list is even more unique. It not only has one more element than the diode but it can amplify as well. Semiconductor devices that have-three or more elements are called TRANSISTORS. The term transistor was derived from the words TRANSfer and resISTOR. This term was adopted because it best describes the operation of the transistor - the transfer of an input signal current from a low-resistance circuit to a high- resistance circuit. Basically, the transistor is a solid-state device that amplifies by controlling the flow of current carriers through its semiconductor materials.

There are many different types of transistors, but their basic theory of operation is all the same. As a matter of fact, the theory we will be using to explain the operation of a transistor is the same theory used earlier with the PN-junction diode except that now two such junctions are required to form the three elements of a transistor. The three elements of the two-junction transistor are (1) the EMITTER, which gives off, or emits," current carriers (electrons or holes); (2) the BASE, which controls the flow of current carriers; and (3) the COLLECTOR, which collects the current carriers.

Transistors are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes, each with its own unique characteristics. The characteristics for each of these transistors are usually presented on SPECIFICATION SHEETS or they may be included in transistor manuals. Although many properties of a transistor could be specified on these sheets, manufacturers list only some of them. The specifications listed vary with different manufacturers, the type of transistor, and the application of the transistor. The specifications usually cover the following items.

Transistors can be identified by a Joint Army-Navy (JAN) designation printed directly on the case of the transistor. The marking scheme explained earlier for diodes is also used for transistor identification. The first number indicates the number of junctions. The letter "N" following the first number tells us that the component is a semiconductor. And, the 2- or 3-digit number following the N is the manufacturer’s identification number. If the last number is followed by a letter, it indicates a later, improved version of the device. For example, a semiconductor designated as type 2N130A signifies a three-element transistor of semiconductor material that is an improved version of type 2N130. The fields of the type lable for the 2N230A is shown in Table 1.

You may also find other markings on transistors that do not relate to the JAN marking system. These markings are manufacturers' identifications and may not conform to a standardized system. If in doubt, always replace a transistor with one having identical markings. To ensure that an identical replacement or a correct substitute is used, consult an equipment or transistor manual for specifications on the transistor.

Transistors are very rugged and are expected to be relatively trouble free. Encapsulation and conformal coating techniques now in use promise extremely long life expectancies. In theory, a transistor should last indefinitely. However, if transistors are subjected to current overloads, the junctions will be damaged or even destroyed. In addition, the application of excessively high operating voltages can damage or destroy the junctions through arc-over or excessive reverse currents. One of the greatest dangers to the transistor is heat, which will cause excessive current flow and eventual destruction of the transistor.

To determine if a transistor is good or bad, you can check it with an ohmmeter or a transistor tester. In many cases, you can substitute a transistor known to be good for one that is questionable and thus determine the condition of a suspected transistor. This method of testing is highly accurate and sometimes the quickest, but it should be used only after you make certain that there are no circuit defects that might damage the replacement transistor. If more than one defective transistor is present in the equipment where the trouble has been localized, this testing method becomes cumbersome, as several transistors may have to be replaced before the trouble is corrected. To determine which stages failed and which transistors are not defective, all the removed transistors must be tested. This test can be made by using a standard Navy ohmmeter, transistor tester, or by observing whether the equipment operates correctly as each of the removed transistors is reinserted into the equipment. A word of caution-indiscriminate substitution of transistors in critical circuits should be avoided.

When transistors are soldered into equipment, substitution is not practicable; it is generally desirable to test these transistors in their circuits.

Transistors, although generally more rugged mechanically than electron tubes, are susceptible to damage by electrical overloads, heat, humidity, and radiation. Damage of this nature often occurs during transistor servicing by applying the incorrect polarity voltage to the collector circuit or excessive voltage to the input circuit. Careless soldering techniques that overheat the transistor have also been known to cause considerable damage. One of the most frequent causes of damage to a transistor is the electrostatic discharge from the human body when the device is handled. You may avoid such damage before starting repairs by discharging the static electricity from your body to the chassis containing the transistor. You can do this by simply touching the chassis. Thus, the electricity will be transferred from your body to the chassis before you handle the transistor.

To prevent transistor damage and avoid electrical shock, you should observe the following precautions when you are working with transistorized equipment:

Transistor lead identification plays an important part in transistor maintenance; because, before a transistor can be tested or replaced, its leads or terminals must be identified. Since there is no standard method of identifying transistor leads, it is quite possible to mistake one lead for another. Therefore, when you are replacing a transistor, you should pay close attention to how the transistor is mounted, particularly to those transistors that are soldered in, so that you do not make a mistake when you are installing the new transistor. When you are testing or replacing a transistor, if you have any doubts about which lead is which, consult the equipment manual or a transistor manual that shows the specifications for the transistor being used.

There are, however, some typical lead identification schemes that will be very helpful in transistor troubleshooting. These schemes are shown in Figure 15. In the case of the oval-shaped transistor shown in view A, the collector lead is identified by a wide space between it and the base lead. The lead farthest from the collector, in line, is the emitter lead. When the leads are evenly spaced and in line, as shown in view B, a colored dot, usually red, indicates the collector. If the transistor is round, as in view C, a red line indicates the collector, and the emitter lead is the shortest lead. In view D the leads are in a triangular arrangement that is offset from the center of the transistor. The lead opposite the blank quadrant in this scheme is the base lead. When viewed from the bottom, the collector is the first lead clockwise from the base. The leads in view E are arranged in the same manner as those is view D except that a tap is used to identify the leads. When viewed from the bottom in a clockwise direction, the first lead following the tab is the emitter, followed by the base and collector.

In a conventional power transistor as shown in views F and G, the collector lead is usually connected to the mounting base. For further identification, the base lead in view F is covered with green sleeving. While the leads in view G are identified by viewing the transistor from the bottom in a clockwise direction (with mounting holes occupying 3 o’clock and 9 o’clock positions), the emitter lead will be either at the 5 o’clock or 11 o’clock position. The other lead is the base lead.

There are several different ways of testing transistors. They can be tested while in the circuit, by the substitution method mentioned, or with a transistor tester or ohmmeter.

Transistor testers are nothing more than the solid-state equivalent of electron-tube testers (although they do not operate on the same principle). With most transistor testers, it is possible to test the transistor in or out of the circuit.

There are four basic tests required for transistors in practical troubleshooting: gain, leakage, breakdown, and switching time. For maintenance and repair, however, a check of two or three parameters is usually sufficient to determine whether a transistor needs to be replaced.

Since it is impractical to cover all the different types of transistor testers and since each tester comes with its own operator’s manual, we will move on to something you will use more frequently for testing transistors-the ohmmeter.

Most transistorized equipments use printed circuit boards on which components are neatly arranged. This arrangement makes the transistors and other components easy to reach while you are troubleshooting and servicing the equipment. While investigating with test probes, however, you must be careful to prevent damage to the printed wiring.

One of the outstanding advantages of transistors is their reliability. Tube failures account for over 90 percent of the failures in electron-tube equipments. Transistors, however, are long lived. This factor, among others, decreases maintenance required to keep transistorized equipment operating. The techniques used in testing transistorized equipment are similar to those for maintaining electron-tube circuits. Basically, these techniques include several checks and inspections.

Unlike vacuum tubes, transistors are very rugged in that they can tolerate vibration and a rather large degree of shock. Under normal operating conditions, they will provide dependable operation for a long period of time. However, transistors are subject to failure when they are subjected to relatively minor overloads. Crystal detectors are also subject to failure or deterioration when subjected to electrical overloads and will deteriorate from a long period of normal use. To determine the condition of semiconductors, you can use various test methods. In many cases you may substitute a transistor of known good quality for a questionable one to determine the condition of a suspected transistor. This method is highly accurate and sometimes efficient. However, you should avoid indiscriminate substitution of semiconductors in critical circuits. When transistors are soldered into equipment, substitution becomes impractical - generally, you should test these transistors while they are in their circuits.

Q-7. What is the major advantage of a transistor over a tube?

Since certain fundamental characteristics indicate the condition of semiconductors, test equipment is available that allows you to test these characteristics with the semiconductors in or out of their circuits. Crystal-rectifier testers normally allow you to test only the forward-to-reverse current ratio of the crystal. Transistor testers, however, allow you to measure several characteristics, such as the collector leakage current (I_c), collector to base current gain (β), and the four-terminal network parameters. The most useful test characteristic is determined by the type of circuit in which the transistor will be used. Thus, the alternating-current beta measurement is preferred for ac amplifier or oscillator applications; and for switching-circuit applications, a direct-current beta measurement may prove more useful.

Many common transistors are extremely heat sensitive. Excess heat will cause the semiconductor to either fail or give intermittent operation. You have probably experienced intermittent equipment problems and know them to be both time consuming and frustrating. You know, for example, that if a problem is in fact caused by heat, simply opening the equipment during the course of troubleshooting may cause the problem to disappear. You can generally isolate the problem to the faulty printed-circuit board (pcb) by observing the fault indications. However, to further isolate the problem to a faulty component, sometimes you must apply a minimal amount of heat to the suspect pcb by carefully using a low wattage, heat shrink gun; an incandescent drop light; or a similar heating device. Be careful not to overheat the pcb. Once the fault indication reappears, you can isolate the faulty component by spraying those components suspected as being bad with a nonconductive circuit coolant, such as Freon. If the alternate heating and cooling of a component causes it to operate intermittently, you should replace it.

Q-8. Name two major disadvantages of transistors.