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• Table of Contents
  • 1: About
    • 1: Developmental Editor
    • 2: Copyright Information
      • 1: Lessons in Electric Circuits
      • 2: United Stated Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series
      • 3: Developmental Editing
    • 3: Contact
  • 2: Introduction
    • 1: Safety
    • 2: The Ohio Electronics Education Calculator
    • 3: Units of Measurement and Numeric Notations
    • 4: Electrical Components
      • 1: Resistors
        • 1: Composition of Resistors
        • 2: Fixed and Variable Resistors
        • 3: Wattage Rating
        • 4: Standard Color Code System
        • 5: Simplifying the Color Code
        • 6: Fifth Reliability Band for Military Specifications
        • 7: Incandescent Lamps [TODO]
      • 2: Inductors [TODO]
      • 3: Capacitors
        • 1: Fixed Capacitor
        • 2: Variable Capacitor
        • 3: Color Codes for Capacitors
    • 5: Electrical Tools
      • 1: Circuit Board Holder and Magnifier
      • 2: High-Intensity Light
      • 3: Pana Vise
      • 4: Hand Tools
        • 1: Pliers
        • 2: Tweezers
        • 3: Dental Tools
        • 4: Eyelet-Setting Tools
      • 5: Miscellaneous Tools and Supplies
      • 6: Safety Equipment
      • 7: Stereoscopic-Zoom Microscope
      • 8: Toolbox
      • 9: Replacement Parts
    • 6: Workstation
      • 1: Lighting
      • 2: Ventilation
      • 3: Noise Considerations
      • 4: Work Surface Area
      • 5: Electrostatic Discharge Sensitive Device (ESDS) Capability
      • 6: Power Requirements
  • 3: DC
    • 1: Chapter 1: Matter, Energy, and Electricity
      • 1: Introduction
        • 1: Matter, Energy, and Electricity
      • 2: Matter
        • 1: Elements and Compounds
        • 2: Molecules
        • 3: Atoms
          • 1: Energy Levels
          • 2: Shells and Subshells
          • 3: Valence
          • 4: Ionization
      • 3: Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators
      • 4: Electrostatics
        • 1: Static Electricity
          • 1: Nature of Charges
          • 2: Charged Bodies
          • 3: Coulomb’s Law of Charges
          • 4: Electric Fields
      • 5: Electrical Energy
        • 1: Energy
          • 1: Electrical Charges
        • 2: How Voltage Is Produced
          • 1: Voltage Produced by Friction
          • 2: Voltage Produced by Pressure
          • 3: Voltage Produced by Heat
          • 4: Voltage Produced by Light
          • 5: Voltage Produced by Chemical Action
          • 6: Voltage Produced by Magnetism
        • 3: Electric Current
          • 1: Random Drift
          • 2: Directed Drift
          • 3: Magnitude of Current Flow
          • 4: Measurement of Current
        • 4: Electrical Resistance
          • 1: Factors That Affect Resistance
        • 5: Conductance
    • 2: Chapter 2: Test Equipment (DC Mode)
      • 1: Circuit Measurement
      • 2: Analog Meters in DC Mode
        • 1: In-Circuit Meters
        • 2: Out-Of-Circuit Meters
      • 3: Basic Meter Movements
        • 1: Compass and Conducting Wire
        • 2: Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Movement
        • 3: Compass and Alternating Current
        • 4: Damping
        • 5: Indicating Alternating Current
        • 6: Other Meter Movements
        • 7: Electrodynamic Meter Movement
        • 8: Moving-Vane Meter Movements
        • 9: Hot-Wire and Thermocouple Meter Movements
        • 10: Ammeters
        • 11: Ammeter Connected in Series
        • 12: Effect on Circuit Being Measured
        • 13: Ammeter Sensitivity
        • 14: Ammeter Ranges
          • 1: Range Selection
        • 15: Ammeter Safety Precautions
        • 16: Voltmeters
        • 17: Voltmeters Connected in Parallel
        • 18: Loading Effect
        • 19: Making a Voltmeter From a Current Sensitive Meter Movement
        • 20: Sensitivity of Voltmeters
        • 21: Ranges
        • 22: Electrostatic Meter Movement
        • 23: Voltmeter Safety Precautions
        • 24: Ohmmeters
        • 25: Using the Ohmmeter
        • 26: Ohmmeter Ranges
        • 27: Shunt Ohmmeter
        • 28: Ohmmeter Safety Precautions
        • 29: Multimeter
        • 30: Multimeter Controls
        • 31: Multimeter Scales
        • 32: Parallax Error
        • 33: Multimeter Safety Precautions
      • 4: Analog Multimeters in DC Mode
        • 1: Measuring Resistance, Voltage, and Current With a VOM
          • 1: Measuring Resistance
          • 2: Measuring DC Voltages
          • 3: Measuring Output Voltages
          • 4: Measuring Current
          • 5: Accessories
        • 2: Digital Multimeters in DC Mode
          • 1: Operating Features
          • 2: Internal Battery Models
          • 3: Overload Protection
          • 4: Basic Digital Multimeter Measurement
          • 5: Block Diagram Analysis
          • 6: Accessories
      • 5: Oscilloscopes in DC Mode
    • 3: Chapter 3: Batteries
      • 1: Introduction
        • 1: The Cell
          • 1: Electrodes
          • 2: Electrolyte
          • 3: Container
          • 4: Primary Cell
          • 5: Secondary Cell
      • 2: Electrochemical Action
        • 1: Primary Cell Chemistry
        • 2: Secondary Cell Chemistry
        • 3: Polarization of the Cell
        • 4: Local Action
      • 3: Types of Cells
        • 1: Primary Dry Cell
          • 1: Construction of a Dry Cell
          • 2: Mercuric-Oxide Zinc Cell
          • 3: Other Types of Cells
        • 2: Secondary Wet Cells
          • 1: Lead-Acid Cell
          • 2: Nickel-Cadmium Cell
          • 3: Silver-Zinc Cells
          • 4: Silver-Cadmium Cell
      • 4: Batteries
        • 1: The Basic Electric Circuit
        • 2: Schematic Representation
        • 3: Combining Cells
          • 1: Series-Connected Cells
          • 2: Parallel-Connected Cells
          • 3: Series-Parallel-Connected Cells
        • 4: Battery Construction
        • 5: Battery Maintenance
          • 1: Specific Gravity
          • 2: The Hydrometer
          • 3: Other Maintenance
          • 4: Safety Precautions With Batteries
        • 6: Capacity and Rating of Batteries
        • 7: Battery Charging
          • 1: Initial Charge
          • 2: Normal Charge
          • 3: Equalizing Charge
          • 4: Floating Charge
          • 5: Fast Charge
          • 6: Charging Rate
          • 7: Charging Time
          • 8: Gassing
    • 4: Chapter 4: Switches
      • 1: Switch Types
      • 2: Switch Contact Design
      • 3: Contact "Normal" State and Make/Break Sequence
      • 4: Contact "Bounce"
    • 5: Chapter 5: Ohm’s Law and DC Power
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        • 1: Application of Ohm’s Law
        • 2: Graphical Analysis of the Basic Circuit
      • 2: Power
        • 1: Power Rating
        • 2: Power Conversion and Efficiency
    • 6: Chapter 6: Series DC Circuits
      • 1: Series Circuit Characteristics
        • 1: Resistance in a Series Circuit
        • 2: Current in a Series Circuit
        • 3: Voltage in a Series Circuit
        • 4: Power in a Series Circuit
      • 2: Summary of Characteristics
        • 1: Rules for Series DC Circuits
      • 3: Series Circuit Analysis
      • 4: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
        • 1: Polarity of Voltage
        • 2: Application of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
          • 1: Series Aiding and Opposing Sources
      • 5: Circuit Terms and Characteristics
        • 1: Reference Point
        • 2: Open Circuit
        • 3: Short Circuit
        • 4: Source Resistance
        • 5: Power Transfer and Efficiency
    • 7: Chapter 7: Parallel DC Circuits
      • 1: Parallel Circuit Characteristics
        • 1: Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
        • 2: Current in a Parallel Circuit
        • 3: Resistance in a Parallel Circuit
        • 4: Power in a Parallel Circuit
        • 5: Equivalent Circuits
        • 6: Rules for Parallel DC Circuits
      • 2: Solving Parallel Circuit Problems
    • 8: Chapter 8: Series-Parallel DC Circuits
      • 1: Solving Combination-Circuit Problems
        • 1: Practice Circuit Problem
      • 2: Redrawing Circuits for Clarity
        • 1: Redrawing a Complex Circuit
      • 3: Effects of Open and Short Circuits
      • 4: Voltage Dividers
        • 1: Multiple-Load Voltage Dividers
        • 2: Power in the Voltage Divider
        • 3: Voltage Divider With Positive and Negative Voltage Requirements
        • 4: Practical Application of Voltage Dividers
    • 9: Chapter 9: Basic DC Circuit Analysis
      • 1: What is Network Analysis?
      • 2: Branch Current Method
      • 3: Mesh Current Methods
        • 1: Conventional Method
        • 2: Inspection Method
      • 4: Node Voltage Method
      • 5: Introduction to Network Theorems
        • 1: Millman’s Theorem
        • 2: Superposition Theorem
          • 1: Additional Example Problems
        • 3: Thevenin’s Theorem
          • 1: Additional Example Problems
        • 4: Norton’s Theorem
          • 1: Additional Example Problems
        • 5: Thevenin-Norton Equivalencies
        • 6: Millman’s Theorem Revisited
        • 7: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
          • 1: Additional Example Problems
      • 6: Δ-Y and Y-Δ Conversions
        • 1: Additional Example Problems
      • 7: Bibliography
    • 10: Chapter 10: Magnetism and Electromagnetism
      • 1: Magnetism
        • 1: Magnetic Materials
          • 1: Ferromagnetic Materials
          • 2: Natural Magnets
          • 3: Artificial Magnets
        • 2: Magnetic Poles
          • 1: Law of Magnetic Poles
          • 2: The Earth’s Magnetic Poles
        • 3: Theories of Magnetism
          • 1: Weber’s Theory
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        • 4: Magnetic Fields
          • 1: Lines of Force
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          • 1: Magnetic Induction
          • 2: Magnetic Shielding
        • 6: Magnetic Shapes
        • 7: Care of Magnets
        • 8: Voltage Generation With Magnetism
      • 2: Electromagnetism
      • 3: Magnetic Fields
        • 1: Magnetic Field Around a Current-Carrying Conductor
        • 2: Magnetic Field of a Coil
          • 1: Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil
          • 2: Strength of an Electromagnetic Field
          • 3: Losses in an Electromagnetic Field
    • 11: Chapter 11: Inductors Under DC Conditions
      • 1: Inductance
      • 2: Characteristics of Inductance
        • 1: Electromotive Force (EMF)
        • 2: Self-Inductance
          • 1: Factors Affecting Coil Inductance
        • 3: Unit of Inductance
        • 4: Growth and Decay of Current in an LR Series Circuit
          • 1: L/R Time Constant
        • 5: Power Loss in an Inductor
        • 6: Mutual Inductance
        • 7: Factors Affecting Mutual Inductance
        • 8: Series Inductors Without Magnetic Coupling
        • 9: Series Inductors With Magnetic Coupling
        • 10: Parallel Inductors Without Coupling
      • 3: Electromechanical Relays Under DC Conditions
        • 1: Relay Construction
    • 12: Chapter 12: Capacitors Under DC Conditions
      • 1: Capacitance
      • 2: The Electrostatic Field
        • 1: The Simple Capacitor
        • 2: The Farad
        • 3: Factors Affecting the Value of Capacitance
      • 3: Voltage Rating of Capacitors
      • 4: Capacitor Losses
      • 5: Charging and Discharging a Capacitor
        • 1: Charging
        • 2: Discharging
      • 6: Charge and Discharge of an RC Series Circuit
        • 1: Charge Cycle
        • 2: Discharge Cycle
      • 7: RC Time Constant
      • 8: Universal Time Constant Chart
      • 9: Capacitors in Series and Parallel
        • 1: Capacitors in Series
        • 2: Capacitors in Parallel
  • 4: AC
    • 1: Chapter 13: AC Sine Wave Fundamentals
      • 1: Concepts of Alternating Current
      • 2: AC and DC
      • 3: Disadvantages of DC Compared to AC
      • 4: Voltage Waveforms
      • 5: Basic AC Generation
        • 1: Cycle
        • 2: Frequency
        • 3: Period
        • 4: Wavelength
      • 6: Alternating Current Values
        • 1: Peak and Peak-To-Peak Values
        • 2: Instantaneous Value
        • 3: Average Value
        • 4: Effective Value of a Sine Wave
        • 5: Sine Waves in Phase
        • 6: Sine Waves Out of Phase
      • 7: Ohm’s Law in AC Circuits
    • 2: Chapter 14: Test Equipment (AC Mode)
    • 3: Chapter 15: Complex Numbers and Phasors
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Vectors and AC Waveforms
      • 3: Simple Vector Addition
      • 4: Complex Vector Addition
      • 5: Polar and rectangular notation
      • 6: Complex number arithmetic
      • 7: More on AC "Polarity"
      • 8: Some Examples With AC Circuits
    • 4: Chapter 16: Response of Resistors, Inductors, and Capacitors to Sine Waves
      • 1: Resistors and Alternating Current
        • 1: AC Resistor Circuits
      • 2: Inductors and Alternating Current
        • 1: Inductive Reactance
        • 2: AC Inductor Circuits
      • 3: Capacitors and Alternating Current
        • 1: Capacitive Reactance
        • 2: AC Capacitor Circuits
    • 5: Chapter 17: Series AC Circuits
      • 1: Series Resistor-Inductor Circuits
      • 2: Series Resistor-Capacitor Circuits
      • 3: Series R, L, and C Circuits
        • 1: LIEC (todo)
        • 2: Reactance, Impedance in Series RLC Circuits (Navy,todo)
          • 1: Reactance
          • 2: Impedance
          • 3: Series RLC Circuit Example
        • 3: Ohms Law for AC
    • 6: Chapter 18: Parallel AC Circuits
      • 1: Parallel Resistor-Inductor Circuits
      • 2: Parallel Resistor-Capacitor Circuits
      • 3: Parallel R, L, and C Circuits
        • 1: Parallel RLC Circuits Example
    • 7: Chapter 19: Series-Parallel AC Circuits
      • 1: Series-Parallel R, L, and C Circuits
    • 8: Chapter 20: Basic AC Circuit Analysis
    • 9: Chapter 21: AC Power
      • 1: LEIC (todo)
        • 1: Power in Resistive and Reactive AC Circuits
        • 2: True, Reactive, and Apparent Power
        • 3: Calculating Power Factor
        • 4: Practical Power Factor Correction
      • 2: Navy (todo)
        • 1: Power in AC Circuits
          • 1: Calculating True Power in AC Circuits
          • 2: Calculating Reactive Power in AC Circuits
          • 3: Calculating Apparent Power in AC Circuits.
          • 4: Power Factor
          • 5: Power Factor Correction
    • 10: Chapter 22: Resonance
      • 1: LIEC (todo)
        • 1: An Electric Pendulum
        • 2: Simple Parallel (Tank Circuit) Resonance
        • 3: Simple Series Resonance
        • 4: Applications of Resonance
        • 5: Resonance in Series-Parallel Circuits
        • 6: Q and Bandwidth of a Resonant Circuit
          • 1: Series resonant circuits
          • 2: Parallel Resonant Circuits
      • 2: Navy (todo)
        • 1: Resonance
          • 1: Resonant Frequency
        • 2: Resonant Circuits
          • 1: The Ideal Series-Resonant Circuit
          • 2: Parallel Resonance
        • 3: Bandwidth
    • 11: Chapter 23: Passive Filters
      • 1: LIEC (todo)
      • 2: What is a Filter?
        • 1: Low-Pass Filters
        • 2: High-Pass Filters
        • 3: Band-Pass Filters
        • 4: Band-Stop Filters
        • 5: Resonant Filters
        • 6: Summary
      • 3: Navy (todo)
        • 1: Resonant Circuits as Filter Circuits
          • 1: The Idea of "Q"
          • 2: Q Is a Ratio
          • 3: The Q of a Coil
          • 4: Application of Q
          • 5: Q Relationships in Series Circuits
          • 6: Q Relationships in a Parallel-Resonant Circuit
          • 7: Summary of Q
        • 2: Filters
          • 1: Low-Pass Filter
          • 2: High-Pass Filter
          • 3: Resonant Circuits as Filters
          • 4: Multisection Filters
        • 3: Safety Precautions
    • 12: Chapter 24: Pulse Response of RL and RC Circuits
    • 13: Chapter 25: Polyphase AC Circuits
      • 1: Single-Phase Power Systems
      • 2: Three-Phase Power Systems
      • 3: Phase Rotation
      • 4: Polyphase Motor Design
      • 5: Three-Phase Y and Delta Configurations
      • 6: Three-Phase Transformer Circuits
      • 7: Harmonics in Polyphase Power Systems
      • 8: Harmonic Phase Sequences
      • 9: Electromechanical Relays Under AC Conditions
        • 1: Contactors
        • 2: Time-Delay Relays
        • 3: Protective Relays
    • 14: Chapter 26: Transformers
      • 1: Transformers
      • 2: Basic Operation of a Transformer
      • 3: The Components of a Transformer
        • 1: Core Characteristics
          • 1: Hollow-Core Transformers
          • 2: Shell-Core Transformers
        • 2: Transformer Windings
      • 4: Schematic Symbols for Transformers
      • 5: How a Transformer Works
        • 1: Producing a Counter Emf
        • 2: Inducing a Voltage in the Secondary
        • 3: Primary and Secondary Phase Relationship
        • 4: Coefficient of Coupling
        • 5: Turns and Voltage Ratios
        • 6: Effect of a Load
        • 7: Mutual Flux
        • 8: Turns and Current Ratios
        • 9: Power Relationship Between Primary and Secondary Windings
        • 10: Transformer Losses
          • 1: Copper Loss
          • 2: Eddy-Current Loss
          • 3: Hysteresis Loss
        • 11: Transformer Efficiency
        • 12: Transformer Ratings
      • 6: Types and Applications of Transformers
        • 1: Power Transformers
        • 2: Autotransformers
        • 3: Audio-Frequency Transformers
        • 4: Radio-Frequency Transformers
        • 5: Impedance-Matching Transformers
      • 7: Safety
        • 1: Effects of Current on the Body
        • 2: Electric Shock
        • 3: Rescue and Care of Shock Victims
        • 4: Safety Precautions for Preventing Electric Shock
  • 5: Electronics
    • 1: Chapter 27: Semiconductor Theory and Diodes
      • 1: Semiconductor Theory
        • 1: Atomic Structure
        • 2: Energy Bands
        • 3: Covalent Bonding
        • 4: Conduction Process
        • 5: Doping Process
          • 1: N-Type Semiconductor
          • 2: P-Type Semiconductor
      • 2: Semiconductor Diode
        • 1: Construction
        • 2: Pn Junction Operation
          • 1: Current Flow in the N-Type Material
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          • 3: Junction Barrier
          • 4: Summary
        • 3: Diode Characteristics
        • 4: Diode Identification
        • 5: Zener Diodes
        • 6: Light-Emitting Diodes
        • 7: Electrostatic Discharge Sensitive (ESDS) Care
        • 8: Semiconductor Substitution Testing Method
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        • 10: Testing Diodes
          • 1: Testing Diodes with an Ohmmeter
          • 2: Testing Diodes with Oscilloscopes
        • 11: Diode Testing
        • 12: Diode Testers
          • 1: Rf Diode Test
          • 2: Switching Diode Test
        • 13: Diode Characteristic Graphical Display
          • 1: Reverse Voltage-Current Analysis
          • 2: Zener Diode Test
        • 14: Static Resistance Measurements
    • 2: Chapter 28: Diode Circuits
      • 1: Half-Wave Rectifier
      • 2: The Rectifier
        • 1: The Half-Wave Rectifier
          • 1: RMS, Peak, and Average Values
          • 2: Ripple Frequency
        • 2: The Conventional Full-Wave Rectifier
        • 3: A Practical Full-Wave Rectifier
        • 4: The Bridge Rectifier
      • 3: Limiters (Clippers)
        • 1: Series Limiters
          • 1: Series-Positive Limiter
          • 2: Series-Negative Limiter
        • 2: Parallel Limiters
          • 1: Parallel-Positive Limiter.
          • 2: Parallel-Negative Limiter
        • 3: Dual-Diode Limiter
      • 4: Clampers
        • 1: Series RC Circuits
        • 2: Positive-Diode Clampers
          • 1: Positive-Diode Clamper With Bias
          • 2: Positive-Diode Clamper With Negative Bias
        • 3: Negative-Diode Clampers
          • 1: Negative-Diode Clamper With Negative Bias
          • 2: Negative Clamper With Positive Bias
      • 5: Voltage Multipliers
      • 6: Diode Switch
    • 3: Chapter 29: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
      • 1: Introduction to Transistors
      • 2: Transistor Fundamentals
        • 1: Classification
        • 2: Construction
        • 3: Transistor Theory
          • 1: NPN Transistor Operation
          • 2: PNP Transistor Operation
      • 3: Transistor Specifications
      • 4: Transistor Identification
      • 5: Transistor Maintenance
      • 6: Precautions
      • 7: Lead Identification
      • 8: Transistor Testing
        • 1: Testing Transistors with an Ohmmeter
          • 1: Transistor Gain Test
          • 2: Transistor Junction Resistance Test
      • 9: Testing Transistors
        • 1: Power Supply Checks
        • 2: Visual Inspection
        • 3: Transistor Checks
        • 4: Voltage Checks
        • 5: Resistance Checks
      • 10: Testing Semiconductors
        • 1: Transistor Testing
          • 1: Resistance Test
          • 2: Transistor Testers
    • 4: Chapter 30: BJT Amplifiers
      • 1: The Basic Transistor Amplifier
        • 1: Types of Bias
          • 1: Base-Current Bias (Fixed Bias)
          • 2: Self-Bias
          • 3: Combination Bias
        • 2: Amplifier Classes of Operation
          • 1: Class A Amplifier Operation
          • 2: Class AB Amplifier Operation
          • 3: Class B Amplifier Operation
          • 4: Class C Amplifier Operation
        • 3: Transistor Configurations
          • 1: Common Emitter
          • 2: Common Base
          • 3: Common Collector
      • 2: Introduction
        • 1: What is Amplification?
        • 2: Uses of Amplification
      • 3: Classification of Amplifiers
        • 1: Voltage Amplifiers and Power Amplifiers
        • 2: Frequency Response of Amplifiers
      • 4: Transistor Amplifiers
        • 1: Amplifier Classes of Operation
          • 1: Class A Operation
          • 2: Class AB Operation
          • 3: Class B Operation
          • 4: Class C Operation
        • 2: Amplifier Coupling
          • 1: Direct Coupling
          • 2: RC Coupling
          • 3: Impedance Coupling
          • 4: Transformer Coupling
        • 3: Impedance Considerations for Amplifiers
          • 1: Impedance Characteristics of Amplifier Configurations
        • 4: Amplifier Feedback
          • 1: Positive Feedback
          • 2: Negative Feedback
    • 5: Chapter 31: Audio and Radio Frequency Amplifiers
      • 1: Audio Amplifiers
        • 1: Single-Stage Audio Amplifiers
        • 2: Phase Splitters
        • 3: Push-Pull Amplifiers
      • 2: Amplifier Frequency Response
        • 1: Bandwidth of an Amplifier
        • 2: Reading Amplifier Frequency-Response Curves
        • 3: Factors Affecting Frequency Response of an Amplifier
      • 3: Radio-Frequency Amplifiers
        • 1: Amplifier Input/Output Impedance and Gain
        • 2: Frequency-Determining Network for an RF Amplifier
        • 3: RF Amplifier Coupling
        • 4: Compensation of RF Amplifiers
          • 1: Transformers in RF Amplifiers
          • 2: Neutralization of RF Amplifiers
        • 5: Typical RF Amplifier Circuits
    • 6: Chapter 32: Field Effect Transistors (FET)
      • 1: JFET
      • 2: MOSFET
    • 7: Chapter 33: FET Amplifiers
    • 8: Chapter 34: Operational Amplifiers
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Differential Amplifiers
        • 1: Basic Differential Amplifier Circuit
        • 2: The Two-Input, Single-Output, Difference Amplifier
        • 3: Typical Differential Amplifier Circuit
        • 4: Single-Input, Single-Output, Differential Amplifier
        • 5: Single-Input, Differential-Output, Differential Amplifier
        • 6: Differential-Input, Differential-Output, Differential Amplifier
      • 3: Operational Amplifiers
        • 1: Characteristics of an Operational Amplifier
        • 2: Block Diagram of an Operational Amplifier
        • 3: Closed-Loop Operation of an Operational Amplifier
          • 1: Inverting Configuration
          • 2: Noninverting Configuration
        • 4: Bandwidth Limitations
        • 5: Applications of Operational Amplifiers
          • 1: Summing Amplifier (Adder)
          • 2: Difference Amplifier (Subtractor)
    • 9: Chapter 35: Active Filters
    • 10: Chapter 36: Oscillators
      • 1: Introduction
        • 1: Classification of Oscillators (Generators)
          • 1: Sinusoidal Oscillators
          • 2: Nonsinusoidal Oscillators
        • 2: The Basic Oscillator
        • 3: Sine-Wave Oscillator
          • 1: RC Network
          • 2: LC Network
          • 3: Crystals
        • 4: Solid-State LC Oscillators
      • 2: Feedback
        • 1: Types of Feedback
        • 2: Configuration of Oscillators
        • 3: Common-Collector Configuration
        • 4: Common-Base Configuration
        • 5: Common-Emitter Configuration
      • 3: Oscillator Circuits
        • 1: Frequency Stability
        • 2: Amplitude Stability
        • 3: Armstrong Oscillator
        • 4: Hartley Oscillator
          • 1: Series-Fed Hartley Oscillator
          • 2: Shunt-Fed Hartley Oscillator
        • 5: Colpitts Oscillator
        • 6: Resistive-Capacitive (RC) Feedback Oscillator
          • 1: Phase-Shift Oscillators
        • 7: Crystal Oscillators
          • 1: Crystals as Tuned Circuits
          • 2: Crystal-Controlled Armstrong Oscillator
          • 3: Crystal-Controlled Pierce Oscillator
        • 8: Pulsed Oscillators
          • 1: Frequency of a Pulsed Oscillator
      • 4: Harmonics
        • 1: Requency Multiplication
          • 1: Buffer Amplifier
    • 11: Chapter 37: Filtered and Regulated Power Supplies
      • 1: The Basic Power Supply
        • 1: The Power Transformer
        • 2: Filters
          • 1: The Capacitor Filter
          • 2: LC Choke-Input Filter
          • 3: Resistor-Capacitor (RC) Filters
          • 4: Failure Analysis of the Resistor-Capacitor (RC) Filter
          • 5: LC Capacitor-Input Filter
        • 3: Voltage Regulation
        • 4: Load Regulation
        • 5: Regulators
          • 1: Series and Shunt Voltage Regulators
          • 2: Current Regulators
          • 3: Short Circuit Protection (todo:should this section be moved to the series regulator section?)
      • 2: Troubleshooting Power Supplies
        • 1: Testing
          • 1: Component Problems
    • 12: Chapter 38: Miscellaneous Semiconductor Devices
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Diodes
        • 1: The Tunnel Diode
        • 2: Varactor
        • 3: Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
        • 4: Triac
          • 1: Solid-State Relays
        • 5: IGBT [TODO]
        • 6: Optoelectronic Devices
      • 3: Transistors
        • 1: The Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
  • 6: Digital
    • 1: Chapter 39: Numeration Systems
      • 1: Numbers and Symbols
      • 2: Systems of Numeration
      • 3: Decimal Versus Binary Numeration
      • 4: Decimal and Binary Numerals
      • 5: The Number Of Patterns That Can Be Formed By N Bits
      • 6: Hexadecimal Numerals
      • 7: Octal and Hexadecimal Numeration
      • 8: Octal and Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
      • 9: Conversion From Decimal Numeration
    • 2: Chapter 40: Binary Arithmetic
      • 1: Numbers Versus Numeration
      • 2: Binary Addition
      • 3: Negative Binary Numbers
      • 4: Subtraction
      • 5: Overflow
      • 6: Bit Groupings
    • 3: Chapter 41: Logic Gates
      • 1: Digital Signals and Gates
      • 2: The NOT Gate
      • 3: The "Buffer" Gate
      • 4: Multiple-Input Gates
        • 1: The AND Gate
        • 2: The NAND Gate
        • 3: The OR Gate
        • 4: The NOR Gate
        • 5: The Negative-AND Gate
        • 6: The Negative-OR Gate
        • 7: The Exclusive-OR Gate
        • 8: The Exclusive-NOR Gate
      • 5: TTL NAND and AND Gates
      • 6: TTL NOR and OR Gates
      • 7: CMOS Gate Circuitry
      • 8: Special-Output Gates
      • 9: Gate Universality
        • 1: Constructing the NOT Function
        • 2: Constructing the "Buffer" Function
        • 3: Constructing the AND Function
        • 4: Constructing the NAND Function
        • 5: Constructing the OR Function
        • 6: Constructing the NOR Function
      • 10: Logic Signal Voltage Levels
      • 11: Dip Gate Packaging
      • 12: Contributors
    • 4: Chapter 42: Boolean Algebra
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Boolean Arithmetic
      • 3: Boolean Algebraic Identities
      • 4: Boolean Algebraic Properties
      • 5: Boolean Rules for Simplification
      • 6: Circuit Simplification Examples
      • 7: The Exclusive-OR Function
      • 8: DeMorgan’s Theorems
      • 9: Converting Truth Tables Into Boolean Expressions
        • 1: "2 out of 3" Sensors Controller
        • 2: Sensor Disagreement Controller
    • 5: Chapter 43: Karnaugh Mapping
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Venn Diagrams and Sets
      • 3: Boolean Relationships on Venn Diagrams
        • 1: Development of a Boolean expression involving a complemented variable
      • 4: Making a Venn Diagram Look Like a Karnaugh Map
      • 5: Karnaugh Maps, Truth Tables, and Boolean Expressions
      • 6: Logic Simplification With Karnaugh Maps
      • 7: Larger 4-Variable Karnaugh Maps
      • 8: Minterm vs Maxterm Solution
        • 1: Replacing AND-OR logic with NAND-NAND logic
      • 9: Σ (sum) and Π (Product) Notation
      • 10: Don’t Care Cells in the Karnaugh Map
      • 11: Larger 5 & 6-Variable Karnaugh Maps
    • 6: Chapter 44: Combinational Logic Functions
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: A Half-Adder
      • 3: A Full-Adder
      • 4: Decoder
      • 5: Encoder
      • 6: Demultiplexers
      • 7: Multiplexers
      • 8: Using Multiple Combinational Circuits
    • 7: Chapter 45: Multivibrators
      • 1: Digital Logic With Feedback
      • 2: The S-R Latch
      • 3: The Gated S-R Latch
      • 4: The D Latch
      • 5: Edge-Triggered Latches: Flip-Flops
      • 6: The J-K Flip-Flop
      • 7: Asynchronous Flip-Flop Inputs
      • 8: Monostable Multivibrators
    • 8: Chapter 46: Counters
      • 1: Binary Count Sequence
      • 2: Asynchronous Counters
      • 3: Synchronous Counters
      • 4: Counter Modulus
      • 5: Finite State Machines
      • 6: Contributors
      • 7: Bibliography
    • 9: Chapter 47: Shift Registers
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Serial-In/Serial-Out Shift Register
        • 1: Serial-In/Serial-Out Devices
      • 3: Parallel-In, Serial-Out Shift Register
        • 1: Parallel-In/Serial-Out Devices
        • 2: Practical Applications
      • 4: Serial-In, Parallel-Out Shift Register
        • 1: Serial-In/ Parallel-Out Devices
        • 2: Practical Applications
      • 5: Parallel-In, Parallel-Out, Universal Shift Register
        • 1: Parallel-In/Parallel-Out and Universal Devices
        • 2: Practical Applications
      • 6: Ring Counters
        • 1: Johnson Counters
          • 1: Johnson Counter Devices
          • 2: Practical Applications
      • 7: References
    • 10: Chapter 48: Programmable Logic (TODO)
    • 11: Chapter 49: Digital-Analog Conversion
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: The R/2ⁿR DAC
      • 3: The R/2R DAC
      • 4: Flash ADC
      • 5: Digital Ramp ADC
      • 6: Successive Approximation ADC
      • 7: Tracking ADC
      • 8: Slope (Integrating) ADC
      • 9: Delta-Sigma (ΔΣ) ADC
      • 10: Practical Considerations of ADC Circuits
    • 12: Chapter 50: Digital Communication
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Networks and busses
        • 1: Short-Distance Busses
        • 2: Extended-Distance Networks
      • 3: Data Flow
      • 4: Electrical Signal Types
      • 5: Optical Data Communication
      • 6: Network Topology
        • 1: Point-To-Point
        • 2: Bus
        • 3: Star
        • 4: Ring
      • 7: Network Protocols
      • 8: Practical considerations
    • 13: Chapter 51: Digital Storage (Memory)
      • 1: Why Digital?
      • 2: Digital Memory Terms and Concepts
      • 3: Modern Nonmechanical Memory
      • 4: Historical, Nonmechanical Memory Technologies
      • 5: Read-Only Memory
      • 6: Memory With Moving Parts: "drives"
    • 14: Chapter 52: Principles of Digital Computing
      • 1: A Binary Adder
      • 2: Look-Up Tables
      • 3: Finite-State Machines
      • 4: Microprocessors
      • 5: Microprocessor Programming